Many medical devices rely on engineered materials such as polymers and metal alloys to perform various functions in the human body. In designing and developing medical devices, it is important to understand the characteristics and properties of the component materials so that an accurate prediction of material response during manufacturing and usage can be ascertained. An understanding of material behavior can be critical to identifying specific process controls, such as temperature control, needed to ensure that the material response is both predictable and repeatable with a high confidence level.
Typically, a variety of testing techniques are employed to aid in characterizing engineered materials. For example, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), tensile testing and other methods can be used to determine various material characteristics, including phase transformation temperatures and mechanical properties.
Phase transformation temperature determination is an important aspect of material characterization for polymers and metals. DSC is an industry standard test method used to determine melt/glass transition temperatures for polymers and phase transformation temperatures for metals. In particular, the technique is widely used to identify phase transformations in nickel-titanium shape memory alloys, typically in accordance with ASTM Standard F 2004-05, “Standard Test Method for Transformation Temperature of Nickel-Titanium Alloys by Thermal Analysis,” which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
Nickel-titanium shape memory materials reversibly transform between a lower temperature phase (martensite) and a higher temperature phase (austenite). The forward and reverse phase transformations may be driven by the application and removal of stress (superelastic effect) and/or by a change in temperature (shape memory effect). Austenite is characteristically the stronger phase, and martensite may be deformed up to a recoverable strain of about 8%. Strain introduced in the alloy in the martensitic phase to achieve a shape change may be recovered upon completion of a reverse phase transformation to austenite, allowing the material to return to a previous shape.
Some nickel-titanium shape memory alloys may exhibit a two-stage transformation which includes a transformation to a rhombohedral phase (R-phased) in addition to the monoclinic (B12) martensitic phase and the cubic (B2) austenitic phase. The transformation to R-phase in two-stage shape memory materials occurs prior to the martensitic transformation upon cooling and prior to the austenitic transformation upon heating.
As generally understood by those skilled in the art, martensite start temperature (Ms) refers to the temperature at which the phase transformation to martensite begins upon cooling, and martensite finish temperature (Mf) refers to the temperature at which the phase transformation to martensite concludes. Austenite start temperature (As) refers to the temperature at which the phase transformation to austenite begins upon heating, and austenite finish temperature (Af) refers to the temperature at which the phase transformation to austenite concludes. R-phase start temperature (Rs) refers to the temperature at which a phase transformation to R-phase begins upon cooling for a two-stage shape memory material, and R-phase finish temperature (Rf) refers to the temperature at which the phase transformation to R-phase concludes upon cooling. Finally, R′-phase start temperature (R′s) is the temperature at which a phase transformation to R-phase begins upon heating for a two-stage shape memory material, and R′-phase finish temperature (R′f) is the temperature at which the phase transformation to R-phase concludes upon heating.
The DSC test method involves heating and cooling a test specimen at a controlled rate in a controlled environment through the temperature intervals of the phase transformations. The difference in heat flow between the test material and a reference due to energy changes is continuously monitored and recorded. Absorption of energy due to a phase transformation in the specimen results in an endothermic valley on heating. Release of energy due to a phase transformation in the specimen results in an exothermic peak upon cooling. Phase transformation temperatures (e.g., Ms, Mf, Rs, Rf, etc.) can be obtained from the DSC data by determining the start and finish of each transformation.
ASTM Standard F 2005-05, “Standard Terminology for Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Alloys,” illustrates exemplary DSC graphs for shape memory alloys exhibiting a single-stage or a two-stage transformation. These DSC graphs are reproduced as FIGS. 1 and 2 in the present patent document. A shape memory alloy exhibiting a single-stage transformation undergoes a one-step change between austenite and martensite in response to a variation in temperature. During cooling, the alloy transforms from austenite to martensite, and during heating, the alloy transforms from martensite to austenite. Accordingly, the DSC graph of FIG. 1 shows a single peak during cooling and a single valley during heating corresponding to the respective transformations.
A shape memory alloy exhibiting a two-stage transformation undergoes a two-step change in crystallographic structure involving austenite, martensite, and R-phase in response to a variation in temperature. During cooling, the alloy transforms from austenite to R-phase (first peak), and then from R-phase to martensite (second peak), as shown in FIG. 2. During heating, the alloy transforms from martensite to R-phase (first valley), and then from R-phase to austenite (second valley) during heating.
Both in practice and in some of the scientific literature, DSC testing of some nickel-titanium shape memory alloys reveals two peaks 310, 320 during cooling but only a single valley 330 during heating, as shown in FIG. 3. It is accepted by some that the two peaks observed during cooling correspond to a two-stage transformation from austenite to R-phase and from R-phase to martensite, while the single valley observed during heating corresponds to a one-step phase change from martensite to austenite. That is, some believe that a nickel-titanium shape memory alloy may exhibit a forward transformation to R-phase during cooling without exhibiting a reverse transformation to R-phase during heating. Others believe that a two-stage reverse transformation may in fact occur during heating, despite the appearance of only a single valley in the DSC data. However, due to the overlapped nature of the valley and the shortcomings of the testing protocol specified in ASTM Standard F 2004-05, the two-stage reverse transformation cannot be fully defined using present methods of DSC testing. Accordingly, phase transformation temperatures, in particular R′f and As, can only be estimated.
Since an understanding of the phase transformations occurring in shape memory alloys may be critically important for medical and other applications of these alloys, a better method of characterizing phase transformations and determining phase transformation temperatures of these materials is desired.